A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

This picture of the stage of the rebuilt Shakespeare's Globe indicates one outcome of much of the scholarship listed below about the original Globe Theatre. See Gallery 9 for more Globe pictures. The character of the scripts resulting from such a configuration is discussed in a brief essay at the end of this bibliography.  

      ESTABLISHING SHAKESPEARE'S THEATRICAL CONTEXT 

        In the Restoration period, after the reopening of the London playhouses, theatre professionals like Davenant, Killigrew, Tate, etc. saw Shakespeare as a gifted but primitive forerunner whose drama was limited by the crude conditions of the Globe and the usually ad hoc character of any indoor theatres. Such ideas led to drastic rewriting of his plays to meet neoclassical standards of composition and staging. This revisionist view began to change in the age of Garrick but gained momentum only in the nineteenth century , and even then was inhibited by  a false sense of historicity concentrated on the nominal setting of the plays’ actions, so that these were recreated with elaborate detail  from the time of Charles Kean, reaching a climax with the extravagant stagings of Irving and Tree.

         This historicizing phase was paradoxically accompanied by increased interest in the narrower issue of the historical conditions of performance in Shakespeare’s time, led by William Poel, but reinforced by scholarly investigation of the environment in which Shakespeare’s scripts were created. This movement became a major concern of Shakespeare studies in the twentieth century, progressively affecting production values, until they were most fully realized in the recreation of the Globe Theatre in various forms and locations, including the most visible product in Sam Wanamaker’s recreation of the Globe near its original site in Southwark.

          Most of the immediately following bibliography traces this academic and professional progression in recovery of Shakespeare’s working conditions. These investigations have reached a complexity and exacting specificity which risks self-cancellation, reflected in so-called “Presentism” movement which insists on the relevance of modern day audience concerns, and inviting disregard of historical context, so that we now rival the Restoration theatre in radical revisionism of Shakespeare to fit an alien context, as in the adaptations of Charles Marowitz (see discussion in Terence Hawkes, Shakespeare in the Present, below).

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A.
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Adams, Joseph Q., Shakespearean Playhouses: A History of English Theatres from the Beginning to the Restoration, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1917.

Adelman, Janet, Suffocating Mothers: Fantasies of Maternal Origin in Shakespeare's Plays, "Hamlet" to "The Tempest" , New York: Routledge, 1992.

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B.

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Booth, Michael R., Victorian Spectacular Theatre 1850-1910, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1981.

Booth, Stephen, An Essay on Shakespeare's Sonnets, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1969.

Bowers, Fredson, On Editing Shakespeare and Other Elizabethan Dramatists, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Library, 1955; revised, Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1966.

Bowers, Fredson. The Elizabethan Revenge Tragedy, 1587-1642, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1940,

Bowmer, Angus L., As I remember, Adam: An Autobiography of a Festival, Ashland: Oregon Shakespeare Festival Association, 1975.

Bowmer, Angus L., Hamlet as Minister and Scourge and Other Studies in Shakespeare and Milton. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1989

Boyce, Benjamin. The Theophrastan Character in England to 1642, Cambridge: Harvard University Press,1947.

Bradbrook, Muriel C., Elizabethan Stage Conventions: a Study of Their Place in the Interpretation of Shakespeare's Plays. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1932. Repr.,1962.

Bradbrook, Muriel C., John Webster: Citizen and Dramatist, London: Weidenfeld, Nicholson, 1980.

Bradbrook, Muriel C., The Rise of the Common Player: a Study of Actor and Society in Shakespeare's England. London: Chatto and Windus, 1962.

Bradbrook, Muriel C.,. The School of Night: A Study in the Literary Relationships of Sir Walter Raleigh, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1936.

Bradbrook, Muriel C.,. "Shakespeare and the Use of Disguise in Elizabethan Drama." Essays in Criticism, II (1952), 159-68.

Bradbrook, Muriel C., Shakespeare the Craftsman. London: Chatto and Windus, 1969.

Braden, Gordon, Renaissance Tragedy and the Senecan Tradition: Anger's Priviledge, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985.

Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. London: Macmillan, 1905.

Bradley, A. C., Oxford Lectures on Poetry. London: Macmillan, 1909.

Bradley, David. From Text to Performance in the Elizabethan Theatre: Preparing the Play for the Stage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.

Bray, A., Homosexuality in Renaissance England. Second edition, London: Gay Men's Press, 1988.

Bredbeck, G., Sodomy and Interpretation: Marlowe to Milton. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991.

Brennan, Michael, Literary Patronage in the English Renaissance: the Pembroke Family, London: Routledge, 1988.

Brennecke, Ernest, Shakespeare in Germany, 1590-1700, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964.

Brewster, Douglas. Drama and the Market in the Age of Shakespeare. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.

Briggs, Katharine M., Abbey Lubbers, Banshees and Boggarts: An Encyclopedia of Fairies. Illustrated by Yvonne Gilbert. Harmondsworth: Kestrell, 1979

Briggs, Katharine M., The Anatomy of Puck: An Examination of Fairy Beliefs among Shakespeare's Contemporaries and Successors. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1959.

Briggs, Katharine M.,. Pale Hecate's Team: An Examination of the Beliefs in Witchcraft and Magic among Shakespeare's Contemporaries and His Immediate Successors. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1962.

Brissenden, Alan, Shakespeare and the Dance. Atlantic Highlands, N. J.: Humanities Press, 1981.

Bristol, Michael D., Shakespeare's America, America's Shakespeare. London: Routledge, 1990.

Brook, Donald, A Pageant of English Actors, London: Rockliff, 1950.

Brown, Pamela Allen and Peter Parolin, editors,Women Players In England, 1500-1660: Beyond The All-Male Stage (Studies in Performance and Early Modern Drama) London: Ashgate, 2005.

Brownstein, O. L., "A Record of London Inn Playhouses from c. 1565-1590." Shakespeare Quarterly XXII (1971), 17-24.

Brownstein, O. L., Stake and Stage: The Baiting Ring and The Public Playhouse in Elizabethan England, Ames: University of Iowa Press, 1963.

Brownstein, O. L., "Why Didn't Burbage Lease the Beargarden?" in The First Public Playhouse: The Theatre in Shoreditch, ed. H. Berry. Montreal: McGill University Press, 1979.

Bullough, Geoffrey, Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare. 8 vols. London and New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul, Columbia University Press, 1957-75.

Burford, E. J., Bawds and Lodgings: A History of the London Bankside Brothels. London: Peter Owen, 1976.

Burckhardt, Jacob. The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860). London: Phaidon, 1952.

Burkhart, Robert E., Shakespeare's Bad Quartos: Deliberate Abridgements Designed for Performance by a Reduced Cast. The Hague: Mouton, 1975.

Butcher, S. H., Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art. London: Macmillan, 1898.

Butland, Alan, "Video Recording at the Globe: A Few New Angles", Shakespeare Bulletin, 16.3 (Summer, 1998), 38-40

Butlere, Martin, Theatre in Crisis 1632-1642, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984.

Butterfield, Herbert. The Statecraft of Machiavelli, London: G. Bell, 1955.

Butterworth, Philip. Theatre of Fire: Special Effects in Early English and Scottish Theatre. London: Society for Theatre Research, 1998.

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C.

Calderwood, James L., Metadrama in Shakespeare's Henriad: "Richard II" to "Henry V". Berkeley: University of California, 1979.

Camden, Carroll, The Elizabethan Woman, Houston: Elsevir Press, 1952.

Campbell, Lily B., Scenes and Machines on the English Stage During the Renaissance, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1923.

Campbell, Lily B., Shakespeare's Tragic Heroes: Slaves of Passion, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1930.

Capp, Bernard S., Astrology and the Popular Press: English Almanacs, 1500-1800, London: Faber, 1979.

Carnegie, David, "Stabbed through the Arras: The Dramaturgy of Elizabethan Stage Hangings." in Shakespeare: World Views, eds. Heather Kerr, Robin Eaden, Madge Milton, Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1996 181-99.

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Cartwright, Kent, Shakespearean Tragedy and its Double: The Rhythms of Audience Response, University Park, Penn.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1991.

Cercignani, Fausto, Shakespeare's Works and Elizabethan Pronunciation, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981.

Chaffee, Judith, Commedia Website with Resources, Bibliography, and Links, at http://www.commedia-dell-arte.com

Chambers, D. S., The Imperial Age of Venice 1380-1580, London: Thames and Hudson, 1970.

Chambers, E. K., The Disintegration of Shakespeare, London: Oxford University Press, 1924.

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Chambers, E. K., Notes on the the History of the Revels Office Under the Tudors, London: A. H. Bullen, 1906.

Chambers, E. K., William Shakespeare: a Study of Facts and Problems, 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1930.

Champion, Larry S., Perspective in Shakespeare's English Histories, Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1980.

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Clare, Janet. "Art made tongue-tied by authority": Elizabethan and Jacobean Dramatic Censorship. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990.

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Clark, D. L., Rhetoric and Poetry in the Renaissance: A Study of Rhetorical Terms in English Renaissance Literary Criticism, New York: Columbia University Press, 1922.

Clark, Sandra, The Elizabethan Pamphleteers: Popular Moralistic Pamphlets, 1580- 1540, London: Athlone, 1983.

Clark, Sandra, The Plays of Beaumont and Fletcher: Sexual Themes and Dramatic Representation, New York and London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1994.

Clemen, Wolfgang H., The Development of Shakespeare's Imagery. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1951.

Clemen, Wolfgang H., A Commentary on Shakespeare's "Richard III". Translated by Jean Bonheim. London: Methuen, 1968.

Clubb, Louise G., Italian Drama in Shakespeare's Time, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989.

Coghill, Nevill. Shakespeare's Professional Skills. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1964..

Cohen, Walter, Drama of a Nation: Public Theatre in Renaissance England and Spain, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985.

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Cohn, Ruby, Modern Shakespeare Offshoots, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976.

Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, Shakespeare Criticism, Edited by Thomas A. Raynor. 2 Volumes. London: Dent, 1907

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Colie, Rosalie, The Resources of Kind: Genre Theory in the Renaissance, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973.

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Colley, J. Scott, Richard's Himself Again: A Stage History of "Richard III", Westport CT; Greenwood Press, 1992.

Collinson, Patrick, The Birthpangs of Protestant England: Religious and Cultural Changes in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1988.

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D.

Dash, Irene, Wooing, Wedding, and Power, Women in Shakespeare's Plays, New York: Columbia University Press, 1981.

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Delattre, Floris, English Fairy Poetry: from the Origins to the Seventeenth Century, London: Henry Frowde, 1912.

Dennis, Rodney, The Heraldic Imagination, London: Barrie and Jenkins, 1975; New York: Clarkson N. Potter, 1976.

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Dessen, Alan C., Elizabethan Drama and the Viewer's Eye, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1977.

Dessen, Alan C., Elizabethan Stage Conventions and Modern Interpreters, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984.

Dessen, Alan C., Recovering Shakespeare's Theatrical Vocabulary, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.

Dessen, Alan C., Shakespeare and the Late Moral Plays, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986.

Dessen, Alan C., Shakespeare in Performance: "Titus Andronicus", Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989.

Dickens, A. G., Reformation and Society in Sixteenth-Century Europe, London: Thames and Hudson, 1966. XV (1964), 115-29.

Diehl, Huston, Staging Reform, Reforming the Stage : Protestantism and Popular Theater in Early Modern England, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997.  

Dillon, Janette, Cambridge Introduction to Early English Theatre, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.

Dobson, Eric J., English Pronunciation 1500-1700. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1957.

Dobson, Michael, The Making of the National Poet: Adaptation,and Authorship 1660-1769., Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992.

Dollimore, Jonathan, and Alan Sinfield, eds., Political Shakespeare: New Essays in Cultural Materialism, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1985.

Dollimore, Jonathan, Radical Tragedy: Religion, Ideology and Power in the Drama of Shakespeare and His Contemporaries. Brighton: Harvester; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984.

Donawerth, J. L., "Shakespeare and Acting Theory in the English Renaissance." in Shakespeare and the Arts, ed. C. W. Cary and H. S. Limouze, 165-78 (1982).

Dowden, Edward. Shakespeare: A Critical Study of His Mind and Art. (1875: frequently repr.), New York: AMS Press, 1970.

Draper, J. W., The Humors and Shakespeare's Characters, Durham: Duke University Press, 1945.

Drayton, Michael, Works, Edited by J. W. Hebel, K. Tillotson, and B. H. Newdigate. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1931-41

Dreher, Diane E., Domination and Defiance: Fathers and Daughters in Shakespeare, Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1986.

Drew-Bear, A., Painted Faces on the Renaissance Stage: the Moral Significance of Face-Painting Conventions. Cranbury: Bucknell University Press, 1994.

Duffy, Eamon, Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997.

Duffy, Eamon, The Stripping of the Altars: Traditional Religion in England 1400- 1580, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992.

Duncan-Jones, Katherine, Sir Philip Sidney: Courtier Poet, London: Clsarendon Press, 1991.

Dunn, Esther Cloudman, Shakespeare in America, New York: Macmillan, 1939.

Dusinberre, Juliet, Shakespeare and the Nature of Women, London: Macmillan, 1975.

Dutton, Richard, Mastering the Revels: the Regulation and Censorship of English Renaissance Drama, Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1991.
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E.

Eccles, Mark, "Sir George Buc, Master of the Revels." in Thomas Lodge and Other Elizabethans, ed. Charles J. Sisson. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1933.

Egan, Gabriel, "The Situation of the 'Lord's Room': a Revaluation." Review of English Studies 48 (1972): 297-309.

Eccles, Christine, The Rose Theatre, London: Hern Books, 1990.

Eccles, Mark, "Elizabethan Actors 1: A-D." Notes & Queries 236, NS 36 (1991), 38-49. "Elizabethan Actors II: E-J." Notes & Queries 236, NS 36 (1991), 454-61. "Elizabethan Actors III: K-R." Notes & Queries 237, NS 37 (1992), 293-303.

Edelman, Charles, Brawl Ridiculous: Swordfighting in Shakespeare's Plays, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992.

Edgecombe, David, Theatrical Training During the Age of Shakespeare, Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press , 1995

Edwards, Philip, "Shakespeare and Kyd" in Shakespeare, Man of the Theatre, ed. Kenneth Muir, Jay Halio, D. J. Palmer. Newark: Univ. Delaware, 1984. 148-54.

Edmond, Mary, "Pembroke's Men", Review of English Studies n.s. 25 (1974), 129-36.

Edmond, Mary, Rare Sir William Davenant. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987.

Egan, Gabriel, "The Situation of the 'Lord's Room': a Revaluation." Review of English Studies 48: 297-309.

Egerton, William L., Nicholas Udall. New York: Twayne, 1965.

Eliot, T. S., "Seneca in Elizabethan Translation" and "Shakespeare and the Stoicism of Seneca", in Selected Essays, London: Harcourt Brace, 1950, 51-88; 107-20.

Elliott, John R., "Shakespeare and the Double Images of King John", Shakespeare Studies 1 (1965), 64-84.

Elton, W.R., Shakespeare's "Troilus and Cressida" and the Inns of Court Revels,

Empson, William, "Hamlet when New." Sewanee Review 61 (1953), 15-42, 185-205.

Empson, William, Some Versions of the Pastoral, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1935.

Erickson, Amy L., Women and Property in Early Modern England,
London: Routledge, 1993.

Erickson, Peter, Patriarchal Structures in Shakespeare's Drama, Berkeley: University of California, 1985.

Evans, Bertrand, Shakespeare's Comedies, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960.

Evans, Bertrand, Shakespeare's Tragic Practice, Oxford: Clarendon Pressm, 1979.

Evans, G. Blakemore, et al., eds. The Riverside Shakespeare, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974

top Aldershot, U.K.: Ashgate, 2000.

F.

Farley-Hills, David, Shakespeare and the Rival Playwrights, 1600-1606, London and New York: Routledge, 1990.

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Farnham, Willard, The Medieval Heritage of Elizabethan Tragedy, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1936; reprinted with revisions, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1956

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Garber, Marjorie, Shakespeare's Ghost Writers; Literature and Uncanny Causality, New York: Methuen, 1987.

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Jackson, Gabrielle B., "Topical Ideology: Witches, Amazons, and Shakespeare's Joan of Arc." English Literary Renaissance, 18 (1988), 40-65.

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     The Effect of  Audiences on Renaissance Scripts     [draft: comment invited]           

   

The reconstruction of the Globe Theatre in Southwark invites discussion of the effect on the audiences of Shakespeare's plays by the kind of venue for which they were  designed. The experiences of modern Globe audiences may potentially even validate the procedures displayed in the scripts, though modern critics such as the New Historicists rarely discuss the nuances of performance as a self-sufficient subject: they tend to  abstract aesthetic, sociological, political, or even moralistic censure of texts. This  emphasis was shared by the theoreticians of the sixteenth-century, such as Sir Philip Sidney, whose Defense of Poetry censured Elizabethan stage practice from an Aristotelian point of view, rather than exploring the distinctive nature and dynamics of Elizabethan drama.  Nevertheless, Shakespeare failed to defend his art as seen on the Globe stage, despite comments on  "acting" throughout Hamlet, and on theatrical illusion in the choruses to Henry V.  As a result Hamlet's personal admonitions to the players are sometimes mistaken for hints of such an authorial account, for example by the celebrated Restoration actor, Thomas Betterton (as cited in Gildon's biography). Yet to take these academic censures for the dramatist's own views would be a classic error about the author's role. For the sophisticated Hamlet,  fresh from the radical University of Wittenberg, cannot be equated with the non-university-educated Shakespeare: the play’s hero is an aloof academic critic like Sidney, censuring the vulgarity of contemporary theatrical stage practices of companies such as Shakespeare’s own. The doubts of some modern literary critics (like Harry Berger in Imaginary Audition) about the significance of the detailed practices of theatre arts thus finds analogous Renaissance precedents, not to mention the Plato’s wholesale repudiation of drama in The Republic.

 

Theorists both then and now share suspicion of naïve performers who deal directly with popular audiences’ desire for lively stories about seductive personalities, whether in Renaissance England, Italy, or Spain - all locations where popular theatres shared professional practices to a remarkable degree. This affinity appears in the resemblance of the stage configurations of the Rose and Globe Theatres to the Spanish corrales de comedias like that at Almagro, and in the types of plots and characters which audiences preferred to see on these stages, preferences openly accepted by leading lights such as Cinthio, Lope de Vega, and Shakespeare. The tours of English players in Northern European countries such as Germany can be documented, but historical playhouse contacts between English performers and those of Mediterranean countries such as Italy and Spain are more elusive, despite shared methods and devices. However, there have been increasing efforts to co-ordinate the theatre practices of these  countries in Louise Clubb’s Italian Drama in Shakespeare’s Time, and the anthology Theatre of the English and Italian Renaissance, edited by Ronnie Mulryne and Margaret Shearing. My essay in the latter, “Shakespeare’s Verismo and the Italian Popular Tradition,”  argued for Shakespeare’s alertness to Italian precedents, seen in his use of Cinthio’s tragicomedy Epitia as a model for Measure for Measure. Shakespeare also found sources in Cinthio’s Hecatommithi, for Othello and A Midsummer Night’s Dream, as well as for Measure for Measure. There are also some indications that commedia dell’arte troops did reach London in Shakespeare’s time, in the protests of the Remembrancer of the City of London, Thomas Norton (co-author of the first Elizabethan tragedy, Gorboduc). In his Exhortation (1574) he warned the mayor against “unnecessary and scarcely honest resorts to plays, . . .  and especially the assemblies to the unchaste, shameless, and unnatural tumblings of the Italian women,” (Richmond, Shakespeare’s Theatre, 315) So there may have been some women performers on Elizabethan stages, albeit Italians.

 

There is also now a greater sense of some consistency in themes, characters, and staging between the English and Spanish theatrical traditions, as reflected in the anthology Parallel Lives: Spanish and English National Drama 1580-1680, edited by Louise and Peter Fothergill-Payne. However, in that book’s section on  “The Great Divide” between Elizabethan England and contemporary Spain, Don W. Cruikshank observes that, during the lifetime of William Shakespeare, England was more or less continuously at war with Spain, at least until the accession of James 1. Thus, dramatists like Lope de Vega had only “a fairy-tale view of England”(199) despite surviving its circumnavigation as a member of the Spanish Armada in 1588. However, the English saw Spain as a major power, even if a hostile one:  “works of Spanish literature were major sources of inspiration for English dramatists. . . . Spanish plots, characters, references, and words were almost too numerous to count.” (203) In the narrower field of theatre, John J. Allen has also opened up what he calls “a possible relationship” between the similar open-air structures of the theatres of Lope de Vega and Shakespeare in his essay on “The Spanish Corrales de Comedias and the London Playhouses and Stages” in Franklin Hildy’s anthology on  New Issues in the Reconstruction of Shakespeare’s Theatre. Much remains to be done, particularly on any effects of direct personal contacts, but my concern here is focused on another aspect of the relationship of these three great theatrical traditions than was covered in these earlier studies. For the close resemblances between the three dramatic traditions suggest their playwrights might share the same artistic practices. As dramatists often working in similarly structured theatres, the discourses of the two non-English masters of theatre might explain professional resources and practices in which Shakespeare would share fully.

 

Of course, English critics such as Sir Philip Sidney had their neo-Aristotelian analogues in the French and Italian academies. These traditional classicists all served as exponents of artistic principles they held to be relevant to Renaissance drama. However, the stage practices of contemporary European playwrights often followed a different pattern from the academicians’ ideas, which in turn generated a craft contrasting to Aristotelian precepts, one dictated by immediate audience responses not philosophical principles. This wholly contemporary ordering of drama is reflected in the vindication of his own stage practices in Cinthio's Discorsi (1554) on the nature of tragedy, comedy, and romance, which seek to vindicate the theatrical success found in "mixed" or double tragedies  (tragedies with a happy ending for the good characters and unhappy for the bad ones). The popularity of this genre was reluctantly conceded even by Aristotle in his Poetics, though his personal taste was for a single, fatal plot. Such mixed plays approximate to those now identified as  tragicomedies, following a term in the prologue to the Amphitryon of Plautus. The precedents in Cinthio were matched by Lope de Vega, in his El arte nuevo de haçer comedias (1609), which followed Cinthio in questioning the enforcement of academic abstractions in the face of overt audience responses and demands. The principles enunciated in these treatises provide the validation for Shakespeare's practices which the English theatre supposedly failed to provide, though there are echoes in the preface to a version of Guarini's Il pastor fido (1590), The Faithful Shepherd (1609), by John Fletcher (who succeeded Shakespeare as dramatist to the King's Men). In such texts, the tragicomic mixing of genres in a multi-layered plot is justified in a variety of ways: partly by its truth to the universal experience of the mixture of feelings, but above all by the greater entertainment value of diversity, in contrast to the consistent emotional tone exacted by classical genres.

 

Shakespeare is commonly held not to have provided such an overt aesthetic for this mixed genre of most of his plays; however, as a playwright he mostly conforms to the theories and practices of Cinthio and Lope in failing to follow Aristotelian norms (the most obvious exceptions being The Comedy of Errors and The Tempest, which seem to observe the unities of time, place, and action). This flexible posture may be partly attributed to his debts to the "realistic" diversity of tone in Cinthio's novelle collection, the Hecatommithi, from which elements of Othello derive, not to mention such dramatic models as Cinthio's Epitia, with its specific precedents for the mixed moods of Measure for Measure. The explicit pragmatism of Cinthio and Lope in their treatises matches Shakespeare's questioning of the idealism of the failed academy of Love's Labour's Lost, and perhaps also in the ambiguous attitudes of the over-intellectual Hamlet, with his theoretician's carping at the uneven practices of the popular theatre (3.2.1 ff). However, the three dramatists were not writing exclusively for Hamlets but also for the "groundlings" whom Hamlet utterly despises. In contrast, we can find a much more accurate representation of the expedient evolution of stage practices in the early debates between the humble workmen in A Midsummer Night's Dream (1.2, 3.1), who approximate to a cross-section of popular elements in Shakespeare's own audience (while the aristocrats’ more debatable views are included only later, and conflict with the success of Pyramus and Thisbe in performances for most audiences). The workmen's laborious application of audience response to their planned performance matches that wryly accepted by Cinthio and Lope de Vega. The recent physical recovery (or recreation) of the theatres for which these dramatists composed invites us to re-animate the relevant aesthetic, which is not the rigorous Aristotelianism of critics such as Sir Philip Sidney but the expedient, popular dynamics of tragicomedy.

 

As the precursor and fullest expositor of the issues, Cinthio deserves priority. Ironically, as Camillo Guerrierii Crocetti notes in his edition of Giovambattista Giraldi Cinzio’s Scritti critici (to which I am largely indebted for the following outline of Cinthio’s career and quotations), Cinthio was himself an academic, professor of philosophy at the University of Ferrara, and tutor to the illegitimate son of Ercole II, and later ducal secretary (7). After retiring to Mondoví from Ferrara Cinzio wrote the Hecathommithi, now his best-known work. However, stage success came with his tragedy of Orbecche , although it provoked others to attack his theatrical innovations, such as the actual staging of the suicide of the hero. In a more classical vein, his other plays include Cleopatre and Didone. Later, violence obtruded even more drastically in his dramatic career when the presentation of his Altile before Pope Paolo III was stopped by the assassination of the lead actor, Flaminio Ariosto, a few hours before the perfomance. Nevertheless, the prologue included the assertion: “if you still insist that the play not be classified as tragedy, you can call it a tragicomedy.”(8)

 

In a fuller development of this issue, in 1543 he wrote the letter containing his discourse on tragedy and comedy, first published in 1553 along with his Discorso intorno al comporre dei romanzi (1549), for which he was attacked bitterly once more, particularly by G. B. Pigna, his ex-student, who sought to vindicate more rigorous academic standards in a way anticipating Robert Green’s attacks on Shakespeare and other journeyman playwrights. The cause is readily apparent in the Discorso dei romanzi, in which Cinthio rejects established precedent: "the poet should never subject himself to tradition, nor lose sight of the innovations demanded by his own time." For Cinthio "the essential element of poetry is mimesis, that is, the imitation by which the Aristotelian concept distinguishes the poem from history in so far as the latter is an imitation of the particular and the former that of the universal, which, variably understood by the critics of period, was identified for Cinthio with veresimilitude."(13)

 

While Cinthio insists that the moral function of art “associates instruction with delight" (15) in Discorso sulle comedie e sulle tragedie, he also confronted the problems of the art of poetry in an Aristotelian context, while expressing a distinctively personal point of view. (20) Thus he enlarged the limits beyond the space of a day, and his artistic exigencies appear vividly in the necessity to combine for the purposes of catharsis, the comic element with the tragic, and to admit some scenes of horror and death on to the stage. (22) Moreover, "his tragedies, if not works of art, are designed for the theatre more than the study, and respond or seek to respond to the preoccupations of the public. The mass of spectators is always present in the thought of Cinthio, not yet as in Castelvetro (who will make them into a tyrannical source of laws and rules), but as, in the following century (granted some indebtedness) with Lope de Vega, in his theatrical composition (as he affirms in his little treatise), who applied it in stage practice and real life under the eyes of the concerned spectators for whom it was designed." (22-3)

 

This is not to say that Cinthio favors the modern fashion of attracting attention by violating standards of plausibility or coherence. He even provides precedents for Hamlet's advice to the players when he indicates his concerns for sobriety in serious drama:

 

I see some in our time (to speak of comedy) who many times have moved laughter on the stage, although they achieve that by unseemly and dirty methods, with irrelevant behavior, worthy rather of drunkards and taverns and disreputable persons rather than by praiseworthy actions, which acquire all praise, and lead to a proper ending as befits a well-conducted comedy. While such things as are done do not reflect decorum or manners, or any thing else which belongs to a worthy action. Into this error, Messr Giulio, no poet will ever run who considers that these jokes and sentiments which bring laughs into comedy, should come there with a propriety which is not remote, not lying, not affected, not dragged in, but as they are born from things themselves, with that dexterity and that smooth method which is achieved by things natural and not distant from the civil and good manners, such that they can be used properly amongst citizens. (221-2)

 

However, Crocetti asserts that catharsis can, according to Cinthio, be obtained in various ways. Peripeteia, or reversal of a situation to elicit pity and terror, can occur either when a hero passes from a happy state to an unhappy one, or in the opposite situation, in which the wicked fall from good fortune to bad, while the good go from misfortune to good. The two latter outcomes are those of tragicomedy alone or combined, of which the larger versions, richer in characterization and plots, are dear to Cinthio. Because tragicomedy does not lose sight of the effect of moral purification and the emotions that produce this, tragicomedy equals formal tragedy, and is more enjoyed by the public than the latter. The interest for Cinthio of tragicomedy lies in a lively need for novelty, which places him, despite contrary pressures, outside of Aristotelianism. His tragicomedy was a daring twist away from the distinction between the genres defined by classical experience. As Crocetti concludes,

 

Those who will champion or later assume the defense of the new genre will call on nature with a broader perspective in which laughter and lament, the serious and facetious, the sublime and the mediocre recur either alternately or mixed together in the unity of life, of reality. These will be the arguments maintained by Juan de la Cuerva, by Lope da Vega ... in their treatises. In the ferment of these problems and of criticisms more or less severe, Giraldi did not limit himself to proposals but wished rather to activate, if not happily, his conception, which will open new horizons in the theatre, into which Lope de Vega, Calderon, and Shakespeare will expand. (23)

 

These precedents in Cinthio were indeed matched by Lope de Vega in his brief verse treatise El arte nuevo de hacer comedias (in Literary Criticism, ed. A.H.Gilbert, 540-8), which followed Cinthio by questioning the enforcement of academic abstractions in the face of overt audience resistance and demands for other outcomes. Lope de Vega's validation of the stage practices of the commercial theatres of his time provides another justification for the practices of devotees of popular art against its Aristotelian critics, both then and now. This exposition of the values of the Renaissance popular stage indicates further criteria by which the impact of the restored Globe can be measured. Lope de Vega's more compact and candid outline of the values relevant to Shakespeare's practices at the Globe appears in his expository poem. This poem purports to be a respectful exposition to Aristotelian critics of the time about the practices and conditions of the contemporary theatre as found at Madrid theatres resembling the Globe: "You order me, lofty spirits of Spain, who in this society and illustrious academy will in a brief space of time exceed in excellence not only those of Italy, . . . but Athens too, . . . to write you a treatise on the art of making comedies which may be acceptable for the use of the public." (541) Throughout Lope ironically professes awareness of the aesthetic superiority of the neoclassical principles of drama which his academic audience derives from Aristotle, while bemoaning the quite different dramaturgy exacted of him by contemporary audiences: “I write in the manner of those devisers who aspire to the acclaim of the crowd; for, since it is the crowd that pays, it is proper to speak to it stupidly in order to please." (542) This is that "quantity of barren spectators" whom Hamlet censures (III.iii.41). Modern theatre critics following Lope’s perspective may see the populist character of performances at the reconstructed Globe less well through the eyes of an intellectual such as Hamlet than from the perspective of an experienced practitioner such as Lope de Vega.

 

Popular theatre audiences are also the ones for whom Lope de Vega insists his predecessors, such as Lope de Rueda, had composed their earlier comedies. So crude were their expectations, he notes, that Rueda introduced into them "the affairs of mechanics, and the love of a blacksmith's daughter"(542)  - seemingly matched by the "mechanicals" in A Midsummer Night's Dream and the "jailer's daughter" in The Two Noble Kinsmen. Rueda excelled in playing rascals and fools, who also appealed to Shakespeare. Morover, two of Rueda’s plays are based on Italian originals which were used by Shakespeare; Eufemia like Cymbeline derived from Boccaccio, and Los engañados like Twelfth Night from the anonymous Gl’ingannati. The ancient Athenian precedents, of course, had higher critical status, for Cicero had called them "a mirror of customs and a vivid image of truth" (543). His metaphor provides another academic precedent for Hamlet's expectation of plays which will "hold the mirror up to nature." (III.iii.22) But for Lope de Vega modern audiences are less traditionally minded: "you asked me to write on the art of making comedies in Spain, where whatever is written is against art; and to tell you how comedies are written, contrary to ancient art and the foundation, is to ask me to give my experience rather than art." (543)

 

Somewhat tongue-in-cheek, Lope then proceeds to expound a new set of procedures imposed because "I have to obey those who can command me, . . . gilding the error of the mob." (544) After asserting that kings may appear in modern as in ancient comedy, Lope enunciates his first assumption of the nature of popular drama: "The tragic mixed with the comic, Terence with Seneca, although it be like another Minotaur of Pasiphae, will make one part grave, the other absurd: and this variety gives much delight, Nature gives us a good example, for because of such variety it has beauty." (544)  Lope then concedes the Aristotelian principle of unity: "one should not be able to remove any part of it without destroying the whole context." (544) However, he absolutely rejects the other constrictions on theatre required by Sidney: "It is not necessary to prescribe that it take place within the limits of one day, though this is a precept of Aristotle" but only "in the least time possible." (544)  However, historical material may require a gap of "several years" between the acts (as in The Winter's Tale), or "a character can go on some journey" (544), as in Cymbeline. As for the unity of time, Lope ridicules the compression required by the limit of one day's action on stage, because of "the years that must elapse in matter which ends in one artificial day."(545) By contrast, modern Spaniards are quite happy to progress from Creation to Last Judgment "within two hours." Obviously, Spanish plays share in the comprehensive chronology of the English medieval drama, from which Shakespeare and his audiences inherited their indifference to the unity of time.

 

In terms of format, Lope had favored three acts. perhaps with interludes, though  he says that more recently he has favored "a dance, because dance means so much in comedy." (545) In this he shares the values reflected in Will Kemp's jigs, which regularly concluded any kind of dramatic presentation at such theatres as the Rose and Globe, and may even have served to "deconstruct" any tragic mood. Such assertions justify the Dance of Death with which Mark Rylance recently concluded his first Hamlet at the Globe, with highly positive audience response. Equally aware of audience response, Lope insists: "Do not permit the denouement until you arrive at the last scene: for when the crowd knows the end, it turns its face to the door and its back on the conclusion." (545)  For similar reasons, "rarely should the stage be left without a character who is speaking, for in these intervals the crowd becomes unquiet." (545)  As for characterization Lope requires the appropriate language, whether for kings, or lower classes: "How deceptive the servants are, how shameless the lady is, full of fraud and wiles of every sort!" (548) By similar analogy to Shakespeare's witty transvestite heroines, we find the counsel: "Let ladies be in keeping with their characters, and if they change costume let it be in a manner that can be excused, for male disguise is very pleasing." (546) He notes "How wretched, unhappy, foolish and inept the lover" appears to be in most Spanish popular drama (548), just like Shakespeare's Orlando, Orsino, or Bertram. Despite such stereotyping of characterization, consistency of costume is irrelevant: "for in Spain today, comedy is full of barbarous things: a Turk wearing a Christian's neck-gear and a Roman in tight breeches." (547) This resembles Peacham's sketch of a scene from Titus Andronicus. Here we can see the shared timeless aesthetic of the Spanish and English Renaissance theatres, with clear guidelines for modern theatrical experiments at the Globe. There is some divergence from the scrupulous medievalism of the Globe's first Henry V.  Modern designers seemingly should not be overzealous for historical production values in their costumes if they wish to explore the original popular staging of Shakespeare.

 

Overall, Lope stresses the primary need for suspense throughout so that "until the middle of the third act no one can even guess at the solution. Always deceive anticipation, and so it may come about that something quite remote from what is intended may be left to the understanding" (as with the notorious last scene of Cymbeline). Indeed, "equivocal speech and the uncertainty arising from the ambiguous has always held a great place with the crowd for it thinks that it alone understands what the other man is saying" (as with audience's delight in the equivocations of Richard of Gloucester's black humor). Such considerations suggest that, rather than seeking to rationalize Shakespeare's intentions more subtly, one might simply explore the reversals and paradoxes of his plotting as staging devices to capture and retain  audiences’ attention.

 

For, in the end, on the basis of his own 438 comedies (of which "all except six of them sin grievously against art"), Lope repudiates theory divorced from expert practice, which is its own justification: "Listen attentively, and do not dispute about art, for in comedy everything will be found of such a sort that if you listen to it everything is apparent.” (548) Thus the principles enunciated in the treatises of Cinthio and Lope de Vega provide a validation for Shakespeare's practices, as echoed in the preface about tragicomedy to The Faithful Shepherdess, by John Fletcher (also dramatist to the King's Men). In such texts, the tragicomic mixing of genres in a multi-layered plot is justified in a variety of ways: partly by its truth to the universal experience of the mixture of feelings, but above all by the greater entertainment value of diversity, in contrast to the more consistent emotional tone exacted by classical genres. Hence Shakespeare's titles: As You Like It and What You Will - the "you" refers to the response of actual theatre audiences of 1600, making the ultimate consideration simply the actors’ direct interaction with such specific live audiences. The recent physical recovery (or recreation) of the  Renaissance theatres for which the three dramatists composed invites more awareness of this expedient aesthetic. Rather than applying the rigorous neo-Aristotelianism of critics such as Sidney, we might recognize the more expedient dynamics of popular tragicomedy in all ages from classical Greece through Renaissance Ferrara and Madrid, down to the modern restored Globe Theatre.  © HMR

 

References

Allen, John J. “The Spanish Corrales de  Comedias and the London Playhouses and Stages” in New Issues in the Reconstruction of Shakespeare’s Theatre, ed. Franklin Hildy. New York: Peter Lang, 1990.

Cinzio, G. G. Giraldi, Scritti critici, ed. Camillo Guerrieri Crocetti, Milano: Marzorati, 1973.

 

Clubb, Louise G. Italian Drama in Shakespeare’s Time. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1989.

Fothergill-Payne, Louise and Peter, eds., Parallel Lives: Spanish and English National Drama   1580-1680, Cranbury NJ: Associated University Presses, 1991.

Gilbert, ed. Allan H., Literary  Criticism: Plato to Dryden, Gilbert, Detroit: Wayne State, 1962.

Hildy, Franklin, ed., New Issues in the Reconstruction of Shakespeare’s Theatre, New  York:   Peter Lang, 1990

Richmond, Hugh Macrae, Shakespeare’s Theatre: A Dictionary of His Stage Context, London:  Continuum International, 2002. 

 

 

Claes Visscher: View of London, 1616. The Globe is in the right foreground: see enlargements in Gallery 1. Sub-album 1. Image 11 & 12  for more detail.

 

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